movingstarvoices.org – James Buchanan, the 15th President of the United States, is best known for his ineffectual leadership during a time of intense domestic crisis that culminated in the outbreak of the Civil War. However, during his extensive political career, Buchanan developed a reputation as a skilled diplomat with significant experience in foreign policy. Before becoming president, he held key diplomatic positions, including U.S. Minister to the United Kingdom and Russia, and served as Secretary of State under President James K. Polk. Despite Buchanan’s diplomatic acumen and several noteworthy accomplishments in foreign policy during his presidency (1857–1861), his legacy is overwhelmingly dominated by his failure to address the growing internal divisions over slavery and the impending secession of Southern states. This article examines Buchanan’s foreign policy achievements, which were overshadowed by the domestic turmoil that consumed his administration.
Buchanan’s Diplomatic Background
Before delving into Buchanan’s foreign policy as president, it is essential to understand his extensive diplomatic experience. Born in 1791 in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, Buchanan entered public life early, serving as a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives and later in the U.S. House of Representatives. His long career in government exposed him to both domestic and international issues.
Buchanan’s diplomatic experience began in earnest when he was appointed U.S. Minister to Russia by President Andrew Jackson in 1832. He successfully negotiated a commercial treaty with Russia, enhancing his reputation as a competent diplomat. He returned to domestic politics afterward, serving as a U.S. senator and later as Secretary of State under President James K. Polk from 1845 to 1849. During this time, Buchanan played a crucial role in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which resolved a long-standing territorial dispute with Great Britain over the Oregon Territory.
Buchanan’s most important diplomatic role came during his tenure as U.S. Minister to the United Kingdom from 1853 to 1856. In this position, he was one of the signatories of the Ostend Manifesto in 1854, a controversial document advocating for the U.S. annexation of Cuba from Spain. Though the Ostend Manifesto was discredited and ultimately never implemented, Buchanan’s experience in navigating complex foreign negotiations solidified his credentials in international affairs.
Foreign Policy as President: A Global Perspective
Buchanan’s presidency took place during a period of significant global change. The 19th century saw the rise of new imperial powers, shifts in global trade routes, and the spread of nationalist and independence movements. As president, Buchanan’s foreign policy goals centered on maintaining U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere, expanding territorial interests where possible, and ensuring peaceful relations with European powers. His administration sought to uphold the principles of the Monroe Doctrine and prevent European interference in the Americas, while also engaging in diplomatic efforts to expand U.S. influence in Latin America and Asia.
The Paraguay Expedition (1858)
One of Buchanan’s notable foreign policy achievements was the successful resolution of a diplomatic dispute with Paraguay. In the early 1850s, the United States had become increasingly involved in South American affairs, primarily due to its growing commercial interests in the region. In 1853, an American ship, the USS Water Witch, was fired upon by Paraguayan forces while conducting surveys of the Paraguay River, a key waterway in South America. This incident led to a breakdown in relations between the U.S. and Paraguay.
Buchanan sought to resolve the issue through diplomacy but ultimately decided that military action was necessary to defend American commercial interests. In 1858, he dispatched a naval squadron to Paraguay, under the command of Commodore William B. Shubrick, in what became known as the Paraguay Expedition. The show of military force, combined with diplomatic pressure, resulted in Paraguay offering an apology and agreeing to pay an indemnity to the United States. This peaceful resolution without a full-blown military conflict marked a rare success in Buchanan’s foreign policy and showcased his ability to combine diplomacy with the threat of force to protect U.S. interests abroad.
Relations with Great Britain: The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Buchanan’s presidency also focused on maintaining stable relations with Great Britain, the world’s foremost imperial power at the time. A key issue during his presidency was the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which had been signed between the United States and Great Britain to prevent either country from establishing exclusive control over a canal that might be built in Central America. The treaty was meant to ensure that neither the U.S. nor Britain would dominate the strategic region, but tensions arose as both nations jockeyed for influence in Central America.
Buchanan’s administration worked to maintain the delicate balance established by the treaty. The president continued diplomatic negotiations with Britain to uphold the principles of the treaty while allowing the U.S. to protect its interests in the region. Though no definitive resolution was reached during his time in office, Buchanan managed to keep relations with Britain on an even keel, avoiding the outbreak of hostilities over Central American territories.
The Question of Cuba: Reviving Expansionist Goals
Cuba, a Spanish colony and the jewel of the Caribbean, remained a highly coveted target for U.S. expansionists during Buchanan’s presidency. Throughout the 19th century, many Southern politicians and pro-slavery advocates viewed the acquisition of Cuba as a means to expand the institution of slavery and strengthen the South’s influence in the Union. Buchanan had long been interested in acquiring Cuba and had previously supported the Ostend Manifesto, which proposed the annexation of Cuba by force if necessary.
As president, Buchanan continued to pursue Cuba through diplomatic channels. He sought to purchase the island from Spain, offering as much as $30 million for its acquisition. However, Spain, keen to retain control of its valuable colony, refused to entertain any offers from the United States. Buchanan’s efforts to annex Cuba ultimately failed, and the issue remained unresolved. While his administration did not achieve its expansionist goals, Buchanan’s pursuit of Cuba reflected the broader trend of U.S. foreign policy during the era, which sought to expand American territory and influence in the Caribbean and Latin America.
Buchanan’s Approach to Asia: Expanding Trade and Influence
Buchanan’s foreign policy was not solely focused on the Western Hemisphere. Like his predecessors, Buchanan sought to expand U.S. commercial ties with Asia, particularly with China and Japan, which had recently opened its doors to foreign trade following the efforts of Commodore Matthew Perry in the early 1850s. Buchanan supported efforts to expand American trade in the Pacific and strengthen U.S. influence in East Asia.
In 1858, Buchanan’s administration oversaw the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin, which was part of a series of agreements between Western powers and China following the Second Opium War. The treaty granted the U.S. and other Western nations increased access to Chinese ports for trade and diplomatic representation. It also provided for the protection of American citizens in China. While the treaty was not solely the result of Buchanan’s efforts, it represented an important step in expanding U.S. commercial influence in Asia during his presidency.
The Utah War (1857–1858): Domestic Conflict with Foreign Implications
While the Utah War was primarily a domestic conflict, it had international ramifications, particularly regarding perceptions of U.S. stability and governance. The conflict arose when Mormon settlers in the Utah Territory, led by Brigham Young, resisted federal authority. In response, Buchanan dispatched federal troops to the region in 1857 to assert control over the territory and ensure that it remained under the jurisdiction of the U.S. government. Though the conflict did not escalate into full-scale war, it raised concerns abroad about the federal government’s ability to maintain order within its borders.
The resolution of the Utah War, which ended through negotiation and compromise rather than military force, reinforced Buchanan’s commitment to using diplomacy to settle disputes. However, the conflict also highlighted the growing strains within the United States and the federal government’s difficulty in managing regional unrest—a precursor to the far larger crisis of secession and civil war that would soon engulf the country.
Domestic Failures Overshadow Foreign Achievements
Despite Buchanan’s successes in foreign policy, his legacy remains overwhelmingly defined by his failure to address the domestic crises that plagued his presidency. Buchanan’s reluctance to take decisive action in the face of secession and his inability to navigate the growing divide over slavery overshadowed his foreign policy achievements. The domestic turbulence of the late 1850s and early 1860s consumed the nation’s attention, and Buchanan’s presidency became synonymous with inaction, indecision, and an inability to prevent the Union’s collapse.
While Buchanan may have been a competent diplomat on the international stage, his passive approach to the greatest internal crisis in U.S. history—slavery and secession—ensured that his foreign policy accomplishments would be largely forgotten by history. His attempts to expand American influence abroad, protect U.S. commercial interests, and maintain peaceful relations with European powers were overshadowed by his inability to hold the Union together during its most critical moment.
Conclusion: A Presidency Defined by Domestic Collapse
James Buchanan’s presidency offers a stark contrast between foreign and domestic policy. On the international stage, Buchanan had a number of notable successes, including resolving the Paraguay dispute, maintaining peaceful relations with Britain, and expanding U.S. trade interests in Asia. However, his presidency is largely remembered for his inability to manage the growing sectional tensions within the United States, particularly over the issue of slavery.